ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLE

The administrative principle/theory was also regarded as classical organization theory. The two major purposes of the administrative principle are;

• To develop basic principles that could guide the design creation, and maintenance of large organizations;
• To identify the basic functions of managing organizations.

Henri Fayol 1841-1925

He was a French industrialist and had extensive business experience. He founded the classical approach. He started work as a mining engineer at the age of 19. He spent his entire working life with the same company and rose to become the managing director at the age of 47 and retired at the age of 77. He published his lifetime working experience in his book “Administration Industrielle et generate in 1916”. The book was later translated by Storrs [1949] into English to read General and Industrial Management.

Fayol’s concern was on the totality of an organization.  To him, management was the most neglected aspect of business operation. Before Fayol, the general believe was that managers are born and not made. That is to say, no one could become a manager through formal training.

However, Fayol was of the view that management was a skill like any other, and that, it could be taught once its underlying principles were understood. He was then given the following accolades:

• Father of classical approach.
• Practical man of Management.
• Father of modern management theory.

Key areas of Contribution.

Fayol contributed to modern management theory through the development of his 14 Principles of management.

1.    Division of work

Fayol’s objective here was to maximize both the amount and quality of production for a given degree of effort, hence he argued for the advantages of specialization. An interesting idea he raises particularly in relation to Taylor’s ideas is that there are limits to the division of labour, which experience teaches us should not be exceeded.

2. Authority and responsibility

Fayol suggests that management has the right to give orders and to expect obedience. Managers derive authority either from their official position or personal qualities. “Wherever authority is exercised, responsibility arises.” Fayol (1949).

3. Discipline

Fayol argued that discipline marks a mutual respect between the organization and its employees. He embodies the principle that a manager can take sanctions in the case of a breakdown of discipline.

4. Unity of command

“For any action whatsoever, an employee should receive orders from one superior only.” Fayol (1949).Thus he argues that authority should be clearly allocated and suggests that if command is divided or unclear it is a continual source of conflict.

 5. Unity of direction

He argues that for any group of activities with the same objective, there should be one clear leader and one clear plan so as to provide for unity of action.

6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest

In any organization there will at least be times when individual interests differ from the interests of the organization. Fayol argues, “The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the interests of the concern.”

7. Remuneration of personnel

The degree of centralization, Fayol argues, is a question of proportion and will vary according to different cases. It will depend, he argues on the character of the manager, the condition of the business and the reliability of the subordinates to whom the manager can delegate.

8. Centralization

The degree of centralization, Fayol argues, is a question of proportion and will vary according to different cases. It will depend, he argues on the character of the manager, the condition of the business and the reliability of the subordinates to whom the manager can delegate.

9. Scalar chain

Fayol argues for a clear chain of authority through which communication should flow. He did however appreciate that some activities require speedy action and recognizes that it was appropriate for people at the same level of the organisation to communicate directly. Notably he required superiors to approve any such communication. He also expected “some measure of initiative at all levels of authority.” Fayol (1949)

10. Order

Fayol approved of both social and physical order. This could be summarized as – the right thing in the right place at the right time. Appropriate selection should ensure competent people are in place, their tasks, responsibilities and places of work should be clear. Echoes of this approach are clearly apparent in what are seen as relatively new practices such as Just in Time.

11. Equity

Managers are encouraged to be both fair and friendly to employees. Fayol argues, “Equity requires much good sense, experience and good nature.” Fayol (1949)

12. Stability of tenure of personnel

Fayol felt that high employee turnover was inefficacy and that managers in particular, if they were to develop themselves fully, required as much security as was possible. He noted however that the stability it was possible to generate in any industry depended on the commercial environment in which the organization was operating.

13. Initiative

Fayol argues that initiative is a source of strength for an organization, particularly in times of difficulty. Initiative he felt should be encouraged at all levels and “The manager must be able to sacrifice some personal vanity to grant this satisfaction to subordinates.” Fayol (1949) In a sentiment as appropriate today as it was at the turn of the century he states “A manger able to do so is infinitely superior to one who cannot.

14. Esprit de corps

In a sentiment possibly borrowed from the military, Fayol outlines the importance of harmony within, and commitment to the organization. He describes in particular two methods to help build such a spirit, the use of verbal rather than written communication wherever possible and secondly the avoidance of encouraging dissension among subordinates.

While Fayol’s principles are widely quoted, he did not intend them to be set in stone but rather as guidance for management action, which must always take into consideration the prevailing circumstances.

FUNCTIONS/PROCESS OF MANAGEMENT

Planing: Selecting the activities and methods for achieving them, either for the organisation as a whole of for a part of it.

Organizing: Establishing the structure of the tasks to be performed to achieve the goals of the organisation; grouping these tasks into jobs for an individual; creating groups of jobs within departments, delegating authority to carry out these jobs, providing systems of information and communication and co-ordinating activities within the organisation.

Commanding: Giving instructions to subordinates to carry out tasks over which the manager has authority for decision and responsibility for performance.

Co-ordinating: Harmonizing the activities of individuals and groups within the organisation. Management must reconcile differences in approach, effort, interest and timing.

Controlling: Measuring and correcting activities to ensure that performance is in accordance with plans. Plans will not be achieved unless activities are monitored; and deviations identified and corrected as soon as they become apparent.

These functions have been re-organized into planning, organizing, directing/leading and controlling.

Lyndall F. Urwick

He was a prolific writer on administration and management. He had rich working experience in industry business consultancy and the armed forces. He was strongly influenced by the ideas of Henri Fayol in particular. He advocated the use of principles as the only way social organization could be controlled .He translated this into his best known-book “The Elements of Administration” published in 1947.

His principles of management represented a code of good practice which he claimed if strictly adhered to should lead to success in administration or management. His work resulted in the development of the following ten (10) principles:

1. Objective

2. Specialization

3. Co-ordination

4. Authority

5. Responsibility

6. Definition [job]

7. Correspondence (authority and responsibility)

8. Span of control

9. Balance (of all depths)

10. Continuity (going concern)

Urwick principles concentrated more on getting the organizational mechanisms right rather than focusing on issues such as remuneration and morale.

A major weakness of Urwick principles is its concentration on the internal environment to the detriment of the external environment. No organization can succeed without the external environment. This is because; organizations are open-systems not self-contained. They have to respond to pressures from the external environment-social, economic, cultural, political, to mention a few.

Urwick also identified the key functions/process of management to be planning, organizing and controlling. He expanded the controlling function to include staffing, selecting and placing. His controlling function served as the foundation or the forerunner to personnel/human resources management and the human relations approach to management.

E. F. L. Brech

Even though Brech shared the opinion of using principles, he was concerned with the development of people in organizations. He was less advocate of the use of principles. Instead, he emphasized the use of flexibility according to a particular situation. He also emphasized the need for written definitions of responsibilities and the value of job descriptions as an aid to effective organization and delegation.

Breech sees management as a social process, for planning and regulating the operations of an enterprise towards an agreed objective. To him, the process is carried out within a framework known as organizational structure.

He argued that the key elements in developing an organizational structure are:

• Defining the responsibilities of management, supervisors and specialist personnel.
• Determining how the responsibilities should be shared.
• Co-ordinating the execution of the responsibilities
•  Maintaining a high level of morale among personnel.

Brech’s principles of management overlap those of Fayol and Urwick. However, they are less dogmatic than the others. Some of his principles are division of responsibilities, clear lines of communication, unity of command, and allocation of authority. His principles are contained in his book The Principles and Practice of Management [1975].

Brech regrets that there are no generally accepted principles of management since each writer has formulated his own principles. In the absent of general agreement on the fundamental body of principles, Brech finds it difficult to regard management as a science or a profession

Contributions/benefits from the administrative theory.

• The numerous principles that have evolved have provided blue- prints in management.
• The works of Fayol, Follett and others have set the foundations for present emphasis on the key components of the function/process of management-planning, organizing, directing/leading and controlling.
• Follette’s principle of making every worker part owner in a business is still valid today as we often hear of workers in troubled unionised organizations agitating to take up ownership and management by using their end-of-service benefits to buy shares.
• It has enhanced and promoted the skills of managers.
• The use of principles makes room for little deviations since the principles provide blue-print and direction. In this way, trial and error are minimized.

Criticisms /Drawbacks to the Administrative Principles.

• Dogmatic adherence to principles stifles initiative and discretionary use of authority
• Principles are not applicable in all situations since we are in a dynamic environment. They cannot be used as rule-of-thumb
•  Since organizations cannot function without people, the disregard for human factors that will apply the principles is a serious drawback to the Administrative Principle.

CLASSICAL APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT

A lot of theories have been developed to underpin the concept of management in organisation. Among some of these schools of management thought are: 

• The classical or traditional approach
• The behavioural approach 
• The system approach
• The contingency approach.

Classical /Traditional Approach

The key assumption under this approach is that people are rational and economically oriented in their approach towards work.

The approach focuses extensively on formal organizations. It also deals with management and organizations by emphasizing more on the organization’s purpose and formal structure

Proponents of this approach also placed greater emphasis on planning of work, the technical requirements of the organization, principles of management, and rational and logical behaviour. The classical school tried to lay down universal principles for the structure and organisation of a business.

Dimensions of the Classical Approach

The classical approach is made up of:

•  Scientific Management.
•   Administrative Management
•  Bureaucratic Management

Scientific Management

It aims at improving the general manufacturing process with a view to improving productivity.

It is also concerned with formulating proper work procedures so that materials will flow uninterrupted.

It lays emphasis on scientific methods of doing things rather than the use of personal intuition, experience, practice and guess work.

Pioneers in the Field of Scientific Management

Scientific management was based on the work of Frederick Winslow Taylor [1856-1915]. He was described as the Father of Scientific Management. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts and started work as an apprentice in engineering. He spent most of his time working and achieving greater efficiency at the shop-floor. His solutions to problems of efficiency were from his own practical experiences. He rose through the ranks to become a Manager in the Midvale Steel Co. He also worked with Simonds Rolling Machine Co. It was at Bethlehem that he conducted experiment on how to improve labour productivity. He consolidated his ideas into a book – The Principles of Scientific Management [1911].

Taylor contributed to the study of management in the following areas:

• The need to develop scientific methods of doing things rather than opinion and rule-of-thumb.
•  Scientific selection of workers with properly defined roles and responsibilities.
•  Scientific education, training and development of the worker
• Scientific development of intimate, friendly and co-operative spirit between management and labour.

According to Taylor, the success of the above principles required a complete mental revolution on the part of management and labour. This required substituting facts or scientific method for intuition, opinion and guesswork.

Taylor was concerned with finding the one best way to perform a task. His basic philosophy of work was based on motivation. He believed that prosperity of both the employer and the worker could only be achieved through maximizing productivity. Taylor suggested that organisations would be more efficient if their knowledge, experience and practices were analysed and the best methods established by management.

Implications of Taylor‘s work

Managers have now realised the need to assign roles and responsibilities. Managers now apply the principles of division of labour and specialization. Managers now design an organizational structure, recruit workers and fit them into the organization with well–defined roles and responsibilities.

Managers at the shop–floor of manufacturing concerns now appreciate correct sequence of manufacturing operations through appropriate plant layout- product, process, fixed position etc.

Examples of Taylor’s Scientific Studies

He analysed and timed steel worker movement on series of jobs. Using time  study as a base, he broke each job down into its components and designed the quickest and best methods of doing each component of the job[task] the conclusion was that, he was able to allot the optimum time for performing a task given the equipment and material on hand.

He also recommended appropriate compensation for more productive workers in relation to others based on a scientifically correct rate that would benefit both the worker and the organization.

The Gilbreths; husband and wife team

The Gilbreths are credited with motion study even though Taylor mentioned it in his work. Motion study is the science of reducing a job or task to its basic physical motions. It is regarded as the cornerstone of scientific management.

In consultation with their senior colleague, Taylor, the Gilbreths were able to reduce the number of movements in laying bricks from 18 movements per brick to 5 movements per brick. In this way, individual output increased from 120 to 350 bricks laid per hour.

The Gilbreths were concerned with the application of measurement to management and abiding by the results. They were also concerned with finding the one best scientific way of doing things.

As employers, they did their best to practice what they preached. They laid down systematic and scientific rules and procedures for doing work and insisted on strict adherence to them. In this way, workers had no or little discretion. In reciprocity, workers were paid fair above competitive rates.

The work of Gilbreths established the foundation for later advances in the areas of job simplification, work standards, and incentive wage plans. According to the Gilbreths, motion and fatigue are intertwined, i.e. a reduction in motion leads to a reduction in fatigue, all other things being equal.

Henry L. Gantt 1861-1991

Gantt was another disciple of Taylor after the Gilbreths in the field of scientific management. He worked with Taylor on several scientific projects at Midvale and Bethlehem. He later went out on his own as a consulting industrial engineer.

Gantt was not happy that Taylor placed too much emphasis on scientific methods of doing things to the neglect of the individual worker whose general welfare will facilitate the success of the scientific method.

He was also not in favour of the differential reward system since to him, had little motivational impact. His new idea on reward system was as follows:

Every worker who completed a day’s assigned workload was to be given a 50-cent bonus. The next reward system was a bonus for each worker who accomplished the set standard and additional bonus if all the workers collectively achieve the standard. To Gantt this reward system would spur supervisors on to train their workers to work hard and earn more.

Contributions/benefits from scientific management\

• Scientific approach to doing things leads to general improvement in working conditions.
• Scientific improvement in working methods leads to increased in productivity all other things being equal.
• It enables workers to be paid by results and to take advantage of packages.
• The scientific approach to management enable managers to adopt a more positive role in leadership styles at the shop floor level in particular.
• It was the basis and the foundation for advanced studies [motion study]
• It created orderliness through a well-designed organizational structure.
• It reduced putting square pegs in round holes since workers were carefully selected based on their abilities to do a particular work.
• It emphasized the importance of training and development of employees to enhance their productive efficiency.
• It provided supervisors with the necessary support to make them more effective 

Limitations/drawbacks of the scientific management

• Workers resented Taylor’s position expressing anxiety that working faster or harder will exhaust work and may lead to redundancy and consequently lay-offs.
• The faster work rate which implied speed up was criticized since it exerted pressure on the work force to achieve a set standard to qualify for an incentive package.
• Scientific management had little regard for human feelings and sentiments. The emphasis was too much on hard work and increased productivity.
• Greater emphasis on productivity and profitability made the manager to exploit the worker and the buyer of his products.
• The worker was made a rigid adherent to methods and procedures to the detriment of discretion and initiative.
• It narrowed motivation to bonus system of incentive to the neglect of other methods of motivation such as respect for human rights.
• The approach gave managers at the workplace the exclusive right to plan and control activities.
• The system of bargaining for conditions of work was absent since every job was scientifically measured, timed and rated.

EVOLUTION OF THE THEORY OF MANAGEMENT

Evolution of management is concerned with the various development stages that management has gone through over the years. Historically, Management was not recognised as a distinct subject such as Geography, Economics, Mathematics, Physics, Law, Accounting, etc. worthy to be studied in educational institution.

The tendency was therefore for people to marginalise it since the Geographer, Economist, Mathematician, Physicist, Lawyer, Accountant, etc. who establishes his business and was in charge of affairs was regarded as a manager.

Interestingly, if one has not studied courses such as Law and Accounting one cannot call himself a Lawyer or an Accountant respectively.

The same cannot be said of Management since it is loosely used to apply to anybody who has established his own business and is in total control of it.

CHANGING TREND IN MANAGEMENT

The concepts of evolution and development have created a paradigm shift in emphasis to the point that management is now regarded as a distinct subject or course of study vigorously studied in many educational institutions. The existence of many management and administration educational institutions the world over are practical demonstration of the fact that there has been a paradigm shift in emphasis. For example, we have Business Schools all over the world such as The Nottingham Business School in UK, KNUST School of Business, Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration, Institute of Professional Studies to mention a few

Even though the renowned authorities in the field of management achieved fame through personal intuition, practice and experience [Art], the fact remains that many went through formal training in it [Science].

The various principles of management propounded by Henri Fayol were the results of many years of practice and formal training.

 INTER-DISCIPLINARY NATURE OF MANAGEMENT

Management has assumed inter-disciplinary dimension since it borrows ideas from various fields such as Economics, Law, Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology and Accounting.

The good general manager is the one who can articulate and demonstrate rich knowledge in many related disciplines in addition to the key functional areas of Management. For example, the Finance manager should be able to understand marketing issues relating to customers satisfaction, brand image and other related issues. 

Thus, the inter-disciplinary nature of management compels managers to broaden their knowledge in the relevant and related disciplines.

It can therefore be concluded that experts in the other relevant disciplines needed in management have also contributed to the evolution and development of management.

MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

Identification of those who are job titles alone and identification of those who are managers within organizations can be confusing Mullins (2002) . He goes on to state “in some organizations there is a liberal use of the term ‘manager’ in an apparent attempt to enhance the status and morale of staff. “Perhaps the de-layering of workforce and the removal of traditional middle management roles and predictable progression routes has led to the desire for outward recognition from employees who perceive that they hold positions of responsibility. For example individuals, who have a responsibility for one area of work, such as a particular aspect of IT, are frequently referred to as managers, although they have no staff to manage.

A result of this trend is that there is a seemingly growing number of people within organizations who, although they have the term manager used in their official job title, do not fulfill all aspects of the role as it is identified by commentators in the fields.

In other areas, changes in organizations and the requirements of roles has meant that positions not formally termed managerial fulfill the requirements for the role. Mullins (2002), page 167) presents an interesting case of the infant school head teacher as a manager.

As organizations have become larger managerial functions have become more specialized. Boddy (2002) outlines distinct functions within the management role.

Functional Managers

Functional managers are typically, those managers who are responsible for a common activity within the organization. Examples include research, marketing, finance and production. Typically both staff and managers will have an expertise in the field of their operations, whilst in some organizations managers will be required to perform a series of functional management positions in preparation for a general management or board level appointment.

General Managers

General managers are typically responsible for a distinct unit within the organization, this might relate to the functions at a geographical location, a division or subsidiary. The general manager is responsible for the overall performance of the unit and as such relies on a number of functional managers.

Project managers

Typically these managers are responsible for a temporary team that has been put together to plan and implement some form of change or carry out an activity with a limited life span. Examples include a new product or system. In some organizations a project manger might be responsible for a sizeable project for a particular customer, such as is often the case in the oil and construction industry. Project managers have particular challenges to face, often they have changing teams of people to work with and on some occasions the people who report to them have additional responsibilities elsewhere in the organization or to other project teams to whom they also report.

Line managers

Line managers are those managers who are in charge of a particular function directly involved in making or supplying goods or services to customers. Line managers can have widely differing degrees of responsibility, examples of these positions, and range from responsibility for a production line (where the term originates) to responsibility for a team of nurses.

This position is of growing relevance in the modern business environment as two factors come into play. Firstly the reduction in the traditional hierarchy of modern organizations has led to a gradual increase in the degree of responsibility that organizations place in line management positions, additionally there is an increasing belief that it is appropriate for more managerial tasks to be delegated to the line management function – where managers are close to both employees and customers.

MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION 

Administration and Management are often used interchangeably and synonymously as Henri Fayol did.  However, many modern writers on management do not share Fayol‘s interpretation of the two concepts-regarding administration as meaning the same as management

Brech regards Administration as a part of management. In other words, administration is a subset of management.

Mullins shares the idea of Brech by stating: “For our purposes, administration is interpreted as part of the management process, and concerned with the design and implementation of systems and procedures to help meet stated objectives”

General interpretations

• Administration deals with the general and actual implementation of the policies initiated by the top management of an organization.
• Administration is an activity that takes place below the top management level of an organization and performed by the functional or the departmental managers and below.
• Administration states the job description (what employees are expected to do) job titles, lines of authority. i.e. who reports to who etc.
•  Administration puts into action, what is to be done and provides guidance so that what is to be done is done properly. 

ORGANIZATION

As an entity/institution; it is a system or a structure made up of people with set objectives and targets to achieve. It is made up of people who have well-defined roles and responsibilities to enable them achieve the overall objectives of an entity.

Organization as an entity includes business institutions, educational institutions, religious institutions, health institutions, security institutions to mention a few.

Organisation could also be seen as a process (organizing). This means identifying and grouping the work to be performed, defining and delegating authority, establishing relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work effectively to achieve set objectives.

MANAGEMENT AS A PROFESSION

For  management to be described as a profession, it is important to explore what makes a profession. In other words, what are the conditions that must be satisfied for a discipline to gain “professional status”? The following conditions have been recommended:

• A body of principles, skills, techniques and specialized knowledge.
• Formal methods of acquiring advanced education, training and experience.
• Existence of ethical codes for the guidance and conduct of members
• License for members to operate
• An association for the members
• Public recognition

On the basis of the above, to what extent do we conclude that management is a profession against the background of successful managers who did not have any formal education and training in management but doing extremely well in management?

Peter F. Drucker is of the view that ‘Management is a practice, rather than a science or profession, though containing elements of both. He further argues that a manager should not be concerned with professionalism but to manage a business.

There are trends towards professionalism in the areas of

Development of skills/techniques

Formal training

Use of management consultants

Institutes of Management (BIM) (1974)

For example, the British Institute of Management (BIM) (1974) has outlined the following codes for its members:

• To act loyally and honestly in carrying out the policy of an organization and not to undermine its image or reputation.
• To accept responsibility for their own work and that of their subordinates
• Not to abuse their authority for personal gain
• Not to injure or attempt to injure the professional reputation, prospects or business of others
• Always to comply with the law and operate within the spirit of the law
• To order their conduct so as to uphold the dignity, standing and reputation of the Institute
• To deal honestly with the public

The BIM also gives the following guides to good management practice:

• Establishing objectives for themselves (Managers and their subordinates which do not conflict with the organization’s overall objectives.
• Respecting confidentiality of information and not using it for personal gain
• Making full disclosure of a personal interest to their employer\helping and training subordinates, ensuring their safety and well-being
• Honouring contracts with customers and suppliers
• Ensuring that correct information is produced
• Not tolerating any corrupt practices
• Setting up a disciplinary structure to implant the code. 

MANAGEMENT AS A UNIVERSAL PROCESS

Like management as a profession, management as a universal process has one main condition. Anything which is universal in character is capable of being applied or used in many contrasting environments with almost the same degree of success. Business environments differ due to socio-economic variations. Management problems therefore vary with each environment.

The questions therefore are: Are management principles capable of universal application? Is management skill transferable i.e. can a manger apply his knowledge and skill in a wide variety of industries?

The aforementioned question could be answered by exploring the views of management theorists such as the following:

Ernest Dale

Dale supports Drucker’s idea that management is not a universal process. To him, no one person could be good manager/administrator in academic, business, military or religious concerns since the philosophy in each institution varies in nature and is not possible for one person to have versatile knowledge in each institution.

Peter F. Drucker

Drucker believes that management skills and experiences have no universal application.  He also contended that organisation is business–oriented and profit maximizing; and welfare and socially oriented organisation (e.g NGOs) have different orientations and therefore cannot be managed with the same principles.

Robert C. Appleby

Appleby contends that management is capable of universal application because both business-oriented or profit maximizing organizations, and socially-oriented or welfare organizations have scarce resources to use. Scarce resources need to be judiciously applied to the varying and competing ends/uses. That is to say, managers can use their skills and knowledge in any institution/organization to achieve the set objectives/targets.

MANAGEMENT AS A SCIENCE OR AN ART

One source of controversy is whether Management is a Science or an Art or both.

Management as a Science

Science is any knowledge arranged in orderly manner, subjected to observation, experiment, test, systematized and finally brought under general principles.

Thus anything referred to as science should have been subjected to various stages of experimentation and proved to be valid after a generalization technically referred to as a hypothesis.

Scientific Management

For management to be regarded as a science it must use scientific methods in its application. Scientific methods involve; 

• Formalized and procedural way of doing things.
• Application of systematized principles like Fayol’s 14 principles and system of controlling.

Scientific management is management that organizes knowledge that has been built up through scientific means.

If a manager manages through the use of formula, procedure or memorization of some principles, it is scientific management. Such a manager is likely to overlook practical realities.

Management as an Art

An art is a practical skill acquired through a long period of experience without any form of rigidity. It is traditional way of doing things without any element of formal training. It could also be described as the use an inherent know-how to achieve a desire result.

According to Schermerhorn et al [1995] an art is something a person practices based on skills applied to achieve a desired result. Art is the application of personal intuition and viewpoints.

Artistic Management

This is managing through the use of personal skills and know-how rather than through the application of principles, procedures and formulas.  Artistic management make use of practical knowledge acquired through a long period of experience.

The achievement of Wendy McDonald, A British Columbia businesswoman in the art of management is quite commendable. She got married at the age of 18 after high school, worked and lifted his husband small machine shop into a giant multi-million dollar industrial complex with branches in Canada and US. She was honoured in 1982 with Veuve Cliquot Award in 1982 for her outstanding practical achievement in management. This story connotes the perception that some people are born managers.

• The first school of thought spearheaded by Taylor, hold the view that management is a science rather than an art.
• The Second School led by Peter F. Drucker argue that management is an art rather than a science. This school of thought is based on the perception that some people are born managers and that management is an innate ability-either you have it or you do not have it. 
• Another adherent to this school of thought is Robert C. Appleby who states that: 

Management is far from being an exact science at present but, by understanding and applying accepted principles; the quality of management practice can be greatly improved.

It is most probable that management will never become wholly an exact science as personal judgements will always be needed to supplement available knowledge; therefore, as a practice, management will always be an art.

From the analysis made so far, one cannot presently describe management as a complete science or art since it has some elements of both in practice. It is therefore safe to regard management as both science and art.

            

WHAT IS MANAGEMENT

Management has been interpreted to mean many things like other disciplines. There is no one generally accepted definition of management.

Management is “Getting things done through other people” Mary Parker Follet

Henri Fayol (1916) argues that to manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and to control. 

E.F.L. Breach (1975) also sees management as a social process entailing responsibility for the effective and economical planning and regulation of the operations of an enterprise, in fulfillment of given purposes or tasks, such responsibility involving:

Judgement and decision in determining plans and in using data to control performance and progress against plans.

The guidance, integration, motivation and supervision of the personnel composing the enterprise and carrying out its operation.

Breach identifies four main elements of management. These are planning, controlling, coordinating, and motivation.

F.W. Taylor (1886) "Father of Scientific Management", has suggested that management is “The determination of the overall policy of a business organization”.

Herold Koontz, and Heinz Weilhrick (1990) view management as “the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected goals”

Laurie J. Mullins (1994) says management may be regarded as:

• Taking place within a structured organizational setting and with prescribed roles;
• Directed towards the attainment of aims and objectives.
• Achieved through the efforts of other people.
• Using systems and procedures.

Management is a process of planning, organizing, directing (leading), and controlling carried out by people at the topmost hierarchy of an organization to ensure that a proper environment is created to enable people working in an organization achieve successfully, the objectives of an organization through the proper utilization of scarce resources.

Implications of management definition.

Management has various meanings and interpretations.

The definitions above and others have given extended definitions and interpretations to management to cover the following:

•  The determination of the overall policy of an organization.
• A team or a group of people who are experienced in management who work together to get things done.
• An activity that takes place at the topmost hierarchy of an organization, i.e. board of directors.
• A career which people pursue to earn a living.
•  An activity that deals with critical and strategic policy decision issues.

DIMENSIONS OF MANAGEMENT

The various dimensions of management have come about as a result of the different levels of management activities in organisations. The level of management depicts the kind of decision that may be taken. The three main levels are: Strategic, tactical and operational.

Strategic Managers (top level management)

This level of management is more often charged with the responsibility of developing the vision, mission, objectives and the game plan of the entire organization. Vision, mission and objectives constitute the three main elements of strategic management direction.

This level is also responsible for determining, evaluating and adapting the aims or missions of an organization and the patterns of decisions that give direction and guidance to the achievement of these aims in the long-term.

Tactical Managers (middle level management)

This aspect of management facilitates the re-definition of the programmes of the Strategic Manager i.e. it ensures that the plans of the strategic manager are re-defined in unambiguous terms. It provides an opportunity for lower level managers to actually get things done. Tactical managers facilitate the implementation of the policies of strategic managers.

It should, however, be noted that, this level of management is being removed from most organisational hierarchies making organisations flatter. This is given the term delayering. This has come about as a result of improvement in information and communication technology, which makes subordinates able to perform their jobs. Organisational members therefore have access to information-which hitherto was provided by middle level managers-that facilitates their work. This process is also referred to as empowerment.

Operational Managers (Lower Level Management)

That aspect of Management is concerned with the actual implementation of the strategies evolved by strategic managers and re-defined by tactical managers. Operational managers may include assistants or deputies to tactical managers.